1. Considering your previous knowledge about the post-Cold War era, please identify the major causes for the decision to partition South Asia into India and Pakistan. Consider Britain's attitude toward independence after World War II and the tensions between the Hindus and Muslims toward self-rule.

Explanation: the major prophecies about international order emerged as the Cold War ended. One was Francis ukuyama’s “end of history” thesis, first outlined in an article in the National Interest in 1989 then elaborated in a book published in 1992. It pronounced total victory for Western capitalism and liberal democracy over all other competing ideologies and even predicted a boring future of peace and tranquility. The other was Samuel Huntington’s “clash of civilizations” thesis, first presented in a Foreign Affairs article in 1993 and then in a book published in 1996. He was decidedly pessimistic, predicting that the end of the U.S.-Soviet rivalry would be followed by a new wave of conflict fueled by civilizational competition and animosity.

Despite my respect for the intellect of their protagonists, I argue that the two big ideas of the post-Cold War era have been proven to be not only mostly wrong, but also wrong-headed. Islam and the Islamic world have played a significant role in disproving and discrediting these ideas and not necessarily in the most predictable ways.

Let’s start with ukuyama. The original end of history article pointed to the “” and claimed that the “triumph of the West, of the Western idea is evident in the total exhaustion of viable systematic alternatives to This was an ironic claim, since the defeated alternatives to , namely fascism and communism, were still Western ideas. So the end of history was really the victory by one set of Western ideas over another.

ukuyama also predicted greater geopolitical stability in the world. For him, only “large states still caught in the grip of history” can produce and sustain big ideologies to challenge Western and thereby cause “large-scale conflict” in the international system. The only candidates for offering such a challenge after the end of the Cold War would be Russia and China, but both were embracing Western-style markets and even, to some degree, political openness, thus moving out of said grips of history.

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